Abstract Estimating the pose of an uncooperative spacecraft is an important computer vision problem for enabling the deployment of automatic vision-based systems in orbit, with applications ranging from on-orbit servicing to space debris removal. Following the general trend in computer vision, more and more works have been focusing on leveraging Deep Learning (DL) methods to address this problem. However and despite promising research-stage results, major challenges preventing the use of such methods in real-life missions still stand in the way. In particular, the deployment of such computation-intensive algorithms is still under-investigated, while the performance drop when training on synthetic and testing on real images remains to mitigate. The primary goal of this survey is to describe the current DL-based methods for spacecraft pose estimation in a comprehensive manner. The secondary goal is to help define the limitations towards the effective deployment of DL-based spacecraft pose estimation solutions for reliable autonomous vision-based applications. To this end, the survey first summarises the existing algorithms according to two approaches: hybrid modular pipelines and direct end-to-end regression methods. A comparison of algorithms is presented not only in terms of pose accuracy but also with a focus on network architectures and models’ sizes keeping potential deployment in mind. Then, current monocular spacecraft pose estimation datasets used to train and test these methods are discussed. The data generation methods: simulators and testbeds, the domain gap and the performance drop between synthetically generated and lab/space collected images and the potential solutions are also discussed. Finally, the paper presents open research questions and future directions in the field, drawing parallels with other computer vision applications.

Highlights • Deep Learning is used extensively for monocular spacecraft pose estimation. • Deployability is an important limitation of the current DL-based solutions. • Lack of space-borne images during training leads to the domain gap problem.